Awesome List of Philosophy Dissertation Topics and Questions

Writing philosophy papers presents challenges because the majority of philosophy topics pursue questions that have no specific answers or issues to which no solutions have been found. Such topics mostly rely on critical thinking of the students to defend their arguments. This guide highlights some tips to help you choose appropriate questions as well as sample topics to consider. Do you Know How to Select the Best Philosophy Dissertation Topic? The selection procedure aims to find what topic you can explore best. However, selecting a topic for your dissertation can be the difference between success and failure in your paper. You need to be careful in the selection process because it dictates the nature of your dissertation paper. So how do you select the best one? Below are some useful tips to help you determine a suitable dissertation topic. Knowledge on the Subject Matter Pick a topic which you are familiar with. Many students have gotten stuck or failed to complete the work because they realized later that the topic was ‘too hard for them.’ You are given the freedom of choice, and you should use it to your advantage. Your Interests Choose a topic that aligns with questions that fascinate you or issues that you are interested in. Writing about something that you like is motivating, and thus you are likely to complete the work on time. Manageability Too wide or too narrow topics are your enemies. Find a topic whose content can fit within the required number of pages. You should be able to exhaust all the essential points in a topic and adequately present them in the dissertation. We Have a List of Philosophy Dissertation Topics to Guide You Philosophy dissertations are based on themes such as religion, theology, ethics, epistemology, morality, ontology and many more. Unfortunately, we cannot cover them all here. However, our experts have gathered random sample topics to help give you some inspiration in creating one of your own. The topics include: How God and the grounds of morality affects human actions The theory of resistance and its impact on human beings Theories behind moral obligation and how they affect society The rationality of taboo and its consequences to human practices The moral justification between combatants killing each other in war and murder. The justification behind the use of terror tactics in war and their effects on society. The difference between blasphemy laws and freedom of expression. An examination of shame in relation to immoral art. An application of corporate social responsibility to the entertainment industry. Investigating artificial intelligence against philosophical logic. An analysis and defense of the concept of evil. An analysis of religion versus ethics and defense of medical studies opting to use animal parts to save human lives. The philosophical foundations in ancient Indian medicine. The concept of empathy and how it lacks in sadists. An analysis of the concept of happiness and its direct correlation to helping others. A basic ontology of play and leisure. Ethics and religion in William of Ockham philosophy. The logic behind the insanity defense. Philosophy Dissertation Questions You Can Consider Below are sample questions that can help you develop a topic for your philosophy dissertation. Why can’t physics explain the presence of evil in the world? Would it be ethical to get brain implants that give you an eidetic memory? Is God real? Should voluntary euthanasia be legalized? What makes an action to be considered evil? Why should we be moral? Should science be controlled? Can all forms of equality ever be achieved? Is it morally justifiable to sterilize another human being? Do genetics determine human behavior? Is sexual behavior the key to interpreting human behavior? Why do we have dreams? Does wealth make life easier or harder? Find Your Fit with Philosophy Dissertation Ideas You Can Pursue There are many concepts in philosophy that you can choose to explore to develop a dissertation topic. Let’s highlight some of them: Deductive reasoning The illusion of free will Hedonism Idealism Knowledge and the nature of knowledge The existence of life beyond death Moral reasoning War crimes The concept of beauty Human rights The concept of modernism Marxism The concept of humanitarianism Theory of functionalism Fatalism concept Ethics and decision making Political obligation Human behavior and genetics The concept of equality Philosophy as a way of life Pragmatism Philosophy science and the concept of substance Existentialism Contact us for Help Is that philosophy paper making your life difficult? Let us handle it for you. Our team of experts can provide a dissertation help service on any topic tailored to suit your requirements. Contact us today. We assure quality and confidentiality.

Essay on Sociology Self and Society

Essay on Sociology Self and Society Essay on Sociology: Self and Society Essay on Sociology: Self and Society  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The issue regarding the role of appearance and beauty in contemporary society has been widely discussed in academic literature and the mass media sources. Beauty is not only biologically programmed to function in human representation, but also it is culturally constructed to address the culture of human societies (DeMello, 2007).   It has been found that human character can be better understood if there is a reflection of one’s sense of identity that can be found in the way an individual is dressed or how he/she behaves (Finkelstein, 2013). Psychologists state that there are many significant physical features that â€Å"both men and women are programmed to find beautiful, including smooth skin, thick shiny hair, and symmetrical faces and bodies† (DeMello, 2007, p. 28). Most people would agree with the fact that appearances could be created to impress others. For example, â€Å"dressing a fter a particular fashion is done in order to convey a certain impression†( Finkelstein, 2013, p. 1). Beauty is not an isolated quality, according to Plato, as beauty and appearance are associated with goodness. However, in some cases, the increased attention to beauty and appearance leads to the violation of effective functioning of the value system. Thesis statement: The emphasis on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies reflects and promotes a distorted system of value because inner beauty is often ignored by the individuals, who highlight the role of appearance in social interactions.The major goal of this paper is to discuss whether the emphasis on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies reflects and promotes a distorted system of value. In order to achieve the established goal it is necessary to discuss the role of appearance and beauty in contemporary society, the nature of the distorted system of value and the relationship between appearance and beauty and the accepted system of values.The role of appearance and beauty in contemporary societyAppearance and beauty play an important role in contemporary society because any individual can be judged by appearance, based on the fact that â€Å"the true mystery of the world is the visible, not the invisible† (Wilde, 2009, p. 49). The importance of beauty is learned by an individual from the early age. The values of society regarding the role of appearance and beauty cannot be kept from children who realize that unattractive men and women cannot become movie stars or leaders. Children are taught to accept the cult of beauty because parents and teachers are obsessed by the existing system of valuing human worth. In fairy tales, ugly characters are always wicked and ill-natured or unhappy because of the lack of outer beauty.Some people believe that outer beauty is a reflection of inner beauty because those people, who are in love, always look beautiful and attractive. In ancient cu ltures, the definition of beauty differed from modern cultures. Both men and women grow older and their beauty is said to grow with their age. This fact means that wisdom that comes with age can be valued as a deeper or inner beauty. According to researchers, â€Å"in today’s society looking good is more important than you would think†(Edom, 2011, p. 134). Psychologists point out to the fact that physical appearance does matter because it is associated with the traits of personality that influence human interaction and treatment. According to psychologist Nancy Etcoff, attractive people are â€Å"perceived as being nicer, smarter and more sociable,† and â€Å"more competent and moral than unattractive people† (qtd. in Edom, 2011, p. 134).The propaganda of the beauty ideal can be found in the mass media sources. In recent years, practically every newspaper, magazine and the Internet sources highlight the significance of appearance and beauty, providing pic tures of â€Å"enlarged breasts, whittled down waists, wrinkle-free foreheads, pumped up lips, reduced vaginas, etc† (Edom, 2011, p. 134).In addition, today everybody knows that human face is a reflection of beauty. Face can be perceived in different ways: â€Å"as a mask in social interaction,† â€Å"the face as art: makeup and plastic surgery† and â€Å"the face as battlefield: a source of ideological controversy† (Synott, 1989, p. 55). Face cannot be ignored in the process of human interaction because the beauty of face influences the effectiveness of interaction and the significance of the self. In other words, the beauty of face can be perceived as goodness. Actually, face reflects the character of an individual, making his/her appearance more attractive. Both Aristotle and Plato supported the idea of the significance of beauty in human interactions (Synott, 1989). According to Plato, beauty is identical to success, happiness and wisdom. Thus, the be auty of human face signifies not only attractiveness, but also wisdom.Nevertheless, there are several widely accepted assumptions, such as   sayings â€Å"beauty is only skin deep†, â€Å"appearances are deceptive† and â€Å"all that glitters is not gold† (Synott, 1989, p. 55). The ideology of beauty is controversial in its nature because face can be perceived not only as mask of the self, but also as the mirror of the soul, which reflects inner beauty. It is necessary to assess the role of cosmetic surgery, which promotes the ideal of beauty (Synott, 1989).The nature of the distorted system of value  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The distorted system of value is propagated in human society. Undoubtedly, a serious damage is done to children who do not understand the difference between outer beauty and inner beauty. The distorted system of value in relation to appearance and beauty is based on improper understanding of the notion of beauty, which i ncludes outer beauty and inner beauty.   According to researchers, the human soul has the capacity not only to deal with hardships, but also to reflect inner beauty. The purity of human soul helps to maintain a positive outlook on different life circumstances, avoiding the growth of negative experiences, such as oppression and discrimination (Canfield, 2002). It is necessary to match inner and outer beauty in order to use the power over others, especially in social interactions. This fact means that is an individual does not embody the outer beauty; he/she could use the beauty of the soul to succeed in interactions.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A system of value is considered to be distorted if there is no harmony is social interactions. If the emphasis is placed on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies, the system of value will be distorted because the role of inner beauty is ignored. The distortion of moral values leads to damaged cultures and destroyed people. Today special attention is paid to the promotion of the ideal of beauty. Central role is given to moral transformation of individuals who ignore inner beauty. As a result, there are many critical responses to the promotion of cosmetic surgery, which ruins inner beauty, making people look perfect, but using face as a mask in social interaction.The relationship between appearance and beauty and the accepted system of values  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is a close relationship between appearance and beauty and the accepted system of values. This relationship can be explained by individualism. People accept what is good in terms what is useful for them. Individualism is associated with selfishness, which promotes injustice in social interactions. According to Finkelstein (2013), â€Å"in the consumer culture of modern society, physical appearance has come to be seen as an important means for claiming a degree of social status† (p.2). Undoubtedly, this fact means that appearance and beauty can promote social inequality in human interactions. Many individuals are focused on using various strategies in order to improve their physical appearance. They tend to buy clothing made by world famous fashion designers, use individualized fitness programs to improve their physical forms, buy special sport equipment for home usage, attend yoga classes and follow strict diet regimes. These practices contribute to supporting the ideal of beauty, but ignore the system of values in some way. For them, physical appearance is of great importance.Certain implications of the question  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Certain implications of the question discussed in this paper are concluded in different perceptions of appearance and beauty. Some people would not agree with the fact that the emphasis on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies reflects and promotes a distorted system of value. They consider that attractiveness of oneà ¢â‚¬â„¢s own appearance cannot express real character of an individual. They believe that it is necessary to judge an individual based on his/her personality traits, no matter what appearance he/she has. According to Finkelstein (2013), â€Å"this conflation of reality with appearance has a long tradition†(p.2). Moreover, appearance can be changed by employing a variety of cosmetics and specially developed devices. In contemporary society, it is easy to use conspiracy, which helps to create artificial complexion and body shape, but overlook the real representation of one’s own character. It is very important to understand the identity of an individual’s character to avoid any misunderstandings and misperceptions.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition, the ideal of beauty is changing because the elements of appearance that can be perceived as attractive are changing. According to researchers, â€Å"the same themes are reworked and re-interprete d in each age†(Synott, 1989, p.73). This fact means cultural, social and even political changes influence the perception of appearance and beauty. For example, the growth of Black Nationalism has led to the perception of â€Å"black beauty†, while the growth of feminism movement has led to the â€Å"rejection of beauty trap† (Synott, 1989, p.73). These changes can have certain implications on the established perception of the ideal of beauty.The criteria for answering the questionThe criteria assumed for answering that question are based on individual perception of appearance and beauty. It is necessary to measure the extent to which the emphasis on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies reflects and promotes a distorted system of value. For example, in the 19-th century, both appearance and an individual’s character were very important in social interaction. Finkelstein (2013) provides Samuel Well’s explanation of the process of reading an individual’s character. He states that in most cases, â€Å"appearances are deceitful† (qtd. in Finkelstein, 2013, p. 5). In other words, it is crucial to associate an individual’s character with his/her physical appearance, but observe positive and negative features.The major problems addressed by the questionThe problems the question is asking to address include the problems of inequality and injustice that occur in the process of social interaction. According to Finkelstein (2013), it is necessary to have a deep understanding of human character from personal experiences because â€Å"appearances, styles and images have become an authoritative narrative of modern social life, which has a significant influence on our habits of sociality† (p. 9). For example, those individuals who have constructed powerful social identity and effectively use beauty and attractiveness to succeed in social indications can have negative attitudes toward others.   In gener al, the problems addressed by the question that has been raised in this paper require prompt and adequate solutions. Beauty and appearance should not promote conflict between individuals through distortion of the accepted system of value.Conclusion  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, it is necessary to conclude that the emphasis on appearance and beauty in contemporary societies reflects and promotes a distorted system of value. There is a close relationship between appearance and beauty and the accepted system of values because the ideology of beauty contributes to the promotion of ignorance regarding the real traits of character, making individuals selfish and self-absorbed. Individualism that is caused by the increased attention of contemporary societies to cosmetic surgery leads to the violation of the functioning of the value system.

First Amendment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

First Amendment - Essay Example Speech, as defined by the Constitution is not limited to the spoken word. It can be an expression or idea. Symbolic speech, as it is often referred to, includes various types of nonverbal communications such as peaceful protests, campaign signs in the front yard and burning the American flag. Yes, burning the flag is a legal expression of free speech. The Supreme Court, through years of rulings, has clearly defined the parameters of free speech. For example in 1969 Brandenburg v. Ohio case the Court ruled that government could not forbid speech that encourages subversive or illegal activity unless that â€Å"advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action.† (Brandenburg v. Ohio, 1969) Using Brandenburg as precedent the Supreme Court ruled the government could not prosecute a Vietnam draft dodger who said â€Å"if they ever make me carry a rifle, the first man I want in my sights is L.B.J.† in Watts v. U.S. (1969). ... A person risks their life in many other countries for much less flagrant self expressive speech than that. The right to free speech is not all-inclusive however. The Court has ruled speech which damages another person’s reputation or defamation including both slander and libel is actionable in court. (Cohen, 2009). â€Å"Defamation law attempts to balance the freedom of speech and open exchange of ideas without giving someone permission to run around spreading lies about another that may harm his or her reputation, ability to earn a living, etc.† (Fabio, 2009). Merely expressing an opinion, however, is not regarded as defamation. Factual statements can only be considered defamatory. Public figures such as celebrities and government officials have not enjoyed the same level of protection under defamation laws. For those in the â€Å"public eye† actual malice toward that person by the speaker must be demonstrated in order to prevail on a defamation claim. (Cohen, 2 009). This is the reason we see so many celebrity tabloids with outrageous headlines in he checkout lanes in grocery stores. It’s much tougher for celebrities to win a lawsuit than the general public. Most forms of speech are covered by the First Amendment but besides defamation other types of speech may be legally restricted and civil litigation initiated based on these restrictions. The Supreme Court has set guidlelines for these other types of speech such as obscenity, causing panic, incitement to crime, sedition, fighting words and hate speech. The test for obscene speech established by the Court is (a) whether that spoken word or expression of speech such as artwork is regarded by the average person as being erotic, (b) whether the words or art depicts acts that are obviously offensive, and (c)

Cultural studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural studies - Essay Example This experience is diametrically opposite to the experience of the ‘academics’. The pedestrians make use of the spaces that cannot be seen by the visionary. As opposed to the visionary, the pedestrians do not have a single map or a picture of a city, but a series of migrational metaphors which always undergoes alterations. [93]. The author seems to mean that experiencing something is more meaningful than visualizing something. The understanding of the people is managed by speculative and classificatory operations which are always liable to contradictions when they encounter the social extremes. The people who actually walk and live in the city will not agree with the concept of the decaying city. [94] Walking in the city can never be captured objectively by drawing maps because the experience of walking is very much subjective. The writer also speaks about the rhetoric of walking where the walkers unconsciously produce sentences using a series of signifiers that only experience can provide. The signifiers used by planners will be taken over by these walkers. Traveling can replace the lost legends, which once offered a series of ‘habitual spaces’. Walking is compared to a story that violates traditional notions and extends to the reality of human experience. Edward Said begins the essay by referring to a French Journalist’s comment about East as â€Å"the Orient† (P.1), which purports three independent things: First, an academic discipline; then, the â€Å"ontological and epistemological distinction† between occidental Vs. oriental; and finally, a historically defined phenomenon, where orientalism is a device of dominance (P.2). He further dwells on the Franco-British as well as American involvement in developing the concept of orientalism. Said thinks that both oriental and occidental are not real but fictitious creations, and are interdependent. He examines this interdependency in three

The Quintessence of Human Nature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Quintessence of Human Nature - Essay Example Some people deemed that humans are basically evil. Hobbes believed that the state of nature was so horrible, and people in their natural state so degenerate, that any form of government was preferable to it (119). Thus, Hobbes opposed any revolution in any kind, not because he supposes that kings govern by absolute right but because he believed that authoritarian governments were mandatory to keep human beings’ worst impulses under control (119). Hobbes highlighted in his theory that the natural state of humanity is war, by which he means not necessarily armed conflict but a struggle in which each person’s interests are intrinsically opposed to everyone else’s (119). In such a state, Hobbes described human nature as solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short (119). Hobbes stressed that men have no pleasure, but on the contrary, a great deal of misery, in keeping company where there is no power to over-awe them all (121). Likewise, he supposes that every man thinks that his companion should value him at the same degree he sets upon himself, and upon all signs of hatred, or undervaluing, fundamentally endeavors, as far as he dares which amid them have no common power to keep them tranquil and that power though is great enough for men to destroy each other, to extort a superior value from his critics, by harm to others for instance (121). Hobbes also cited the three principal factors of quarrel that the nature of man possesses and these are rivalry, diffidence and the drive for grandeur (121). The sense of rivalry drives men to invade for gain; they also employ the use of violence to make themselves the masters of other men’s persons, wives, children and cattle. On the contrary, the principle of diffidence highlights that men dominate others for their safety; hence, they utilize hostility to defend themselves. Conversely, the drive for grandeur motivates a man to overcome another for reputation; mainly, they use aggression for trifles suc h as a word, a smile, a diverse opinion and any other sign of undervalue, either direct in their persons, or by reflection in their kindred, their friends, their nation, their profession or their name (Hobbes 121). Just like Hobbes, the Chinese philosopher Hsun believes that man’s nature is basically evil (100). Hsun saw Confucian rites as indispensable because they restrained and redirected humanity’s innate disposition towards evil (100). Moreover, he believed that strict discipline could make human beings good despite their natural inclinations. He also argued that human beings must be forced into rectitude by strict laws and harsh penalties for disobedience (100). Man’s nature is evil and the goodness is the result of conscious activity; the nature of man is such that he is born with a fondness for profit and if he indulges this fondness, it will lead man into squabbling and conflict, and all sense of courtesy and humility will vanish (Hsun 100-101). He is b orn with feelings of resentment and abhorrence, and if he indulges these, they will direct him into violence and crime, and all sense of fidelity and good faith will disappear (Hsun 101). Man is born with the desires of the eyes and the ears, with a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds; if he indulges these, they will lead him into license and depravity, and all ritual principles and correct forms

Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories

Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories FRITZ Claudia KRENN Nora SCHALLEHN Anna Episodic memory is defined as a memory for personal unique past experience. Experimental approaches with diverse species were done in order to test for the â€Å"what where and when† of some unique recent event. These experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals, which is the main focus of this essay. The memory in general is divided into two parts – procedural and declarative memory. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. Episodic memory is the latest kind of memory to develop and the first to degenerate with age. When it was first discussed by Tulving in 1972 he proposed a distinction between episodic and semantic memory, knowing versus remembering. Episodic memory was defined primarily as a memory for personal unique past experience that is what happened, where and when, also known as the WWW theory. According to Tulving â€Å"episodic memory receives and stores information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations among these events.† In contrast, semantic memory is the knowledge of general facts, a structured record of details, concepts and skills that we have acquired. It is used as an aid in placing episodic events in time. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episod ic memory can be thought as a map that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, memory for the experience of dinner at Luigi’s Restaurant last Saturday night is episodic whereas knowledge about what was involved in having dinner at a restaurant in general is semantic. Furthermore supported by evidence that some people with hippocampal damage have semantic but not episodic memory, the definition of episodic memory evolved to emphasize its conscious component, a feeling of re-experiencing the remembered event which is also known as autonoetic consciousness (Tulving 2002). It enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time. It is further claimed to be part of a uniquely human faculty of â€Å"mental time travel,† the ability to mentally project oneself into the future as well as into the past. How does mental time travel the reconstruction of past events work? Imagine the last presentation you gave? Do you remember the audience’s rea ction? You might have snapshots of what the scene looked like. But this imagery does not tend to unfold in an orderly fashion from start to end. Extensive research on episodic memory clearly shows that we do not simply press the rewind button – we actively reconstruct past events from the gist or from visual snapshots, but draw heavily on our general semantic knowledge. We tend to reconstruct in ways that help justify our current attitudes. Let us get back to Tulving’s proposal. Do we agree on the aspect that humans are alone in their ability to recall about the past and imagine the future? Some argue that language is the key difference between humans and animals and that episodic memory can only emerge in an organism that possesses language. However, there have been efforts to demonstrate episodic memory in animals. In one attempt pigeons were taught a language in order to respond to an unexpected question. Furthermore, a fundamental question in comparative cognition is whether animals remember unique personal past experiences. It has long been argued that memories for specific events, known as episodic memory, are unique to humans. We know that animals from dolphins to monkeys can learn from single events. But do they revisit the events that shaped their past? Innovative work by Clayton and Dickson has produced perhaps the strongest case yet for the WWW memory in animals. The animals’ memory is referred to as episodic-like because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory for what, where and when but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Clayton and Dickinson (1998) where the first ones who tried to demonstrate the discrimination of WWW in scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). The birds got to cache perishable peanuts on one side of a storage tray and non-perishable wax worms on the other side. Two caching phases were separated by 120 hours. The birds either cached peanuts followed by worms or the other way round. After four hours they were allowed to recover the stored items. Before the actual test phase, one group of the birds learned that worms decay over time, thus after the four hours gap they directed their first inspection to the worm side. After the 124 hours gap the worms had already perished and the birds turned to the peanut side first. To validate that the preference for the peanuts on the longer trial was not because the scrub jays simply forgot where the worms were, the group was compared to a second group. This group learned that the worms never decay as they where removed immediately after caching and replaced by fresh ones. As a result all birds of this group inspected the worm side of the tray in both the short and the long trial first. In conclusion the switch from worm side to peanut side by birds in the first group can only be explained by recalling what items were cached, where they were stored and when they were cached, which is evidence for episodic-like memory. Not only scrub jays but also rats were used for experiments for testing the â€Å"WWW†-theory. This was done by Babb and Crystal (2005), using the circadian rhythm. Critics stated however, that this could not be seen as a proof for â€Å"when† since the rats’ biological rhythm is responsible for the â€Å"when†. As a consequence Babb and Crystal (2006) modified the experiment, controlling for the time of day. The rats however could still accomplish the trials. It is therefore called episodic-like memory. In an experiment by Roberts et al. (2008), rats were tested if their memory is based on when or how long ago a specific event occurred. The results clearly displayed that rats use elapsed time as a cue for when an event happened. In terms of the definition of episodic-like memory the conditions for â€Å"what-where-when† were fulfilled in these types of experiments. However in terms of the definition of episodic memory the evidence of autonoetic con sciousness is missing. Subsequently one can argue that those experiments had long training phases and the animals learned therefore rules on how to behave in certain situations. This could be declared as semantic memory. A different approach to test episodic-like memory in animals was done by Zentall et al. (2001). In this study, the aim was to avoid the possibility for the tested animals to solve the task because of a lot of experiences with the â€Å"rules† of the task and thus form semantic memory. This was done by asking them nonverbally unexpected questions. Therefore the eight tested pigeons were forced to travel back in their minds. To test the pigeons, Zentall et al. used a study design with multiple phases. At first, the pigeons had a language training where they learned to respond to the question â€Å"did you just peck?† They were shown one of two different symbols. At the symbol with vertical lines they would peck and at the one with horizontal lines they would refrain from pecking. The demonstrated symbol was followed by a red and a green light. After pecking the choice of the red light was reinforced. After refraining from pecking the choice of the green light was reinforc ed. Now the red light can be seen as the answer â€Å"yes† and the green light as the answer â€Å"no† to the question â€Å"Did you just peck?† In the next phase they learned to peck at one of a new pair of symbols without being asked about what they had just done. However in the test phase they were confronted for the first time with the red and green comparisons after the interaction with a new symbol. They were also tested with a symbol where they would spontaneously peck at and the absence of a symbol, so that they would not peck. And again they were asked whether they had just pecked. In both cases they chose the right answer in about seventy percent of the first four test trials, which is above chance. This study outcome speaks in favor of episodic-like memory in pigeons. Zentall et al. (2001) could demonstrate, that the pigeons were able to retrieve knowledge of recent experiences on unexpected request. Additionally, further research displayed, that the pigeons did not solve the task through proprioceptive cues (Singer and Zentall 2007, as cited in Crystal). However the pigeons had to remember only their actions for a few seconds, while humans are able to remember episodes for a long time or even a lifetime. So studies on what-where-when memory with integration of unexpected questions could lead to stronger evidence (Crystal 2010). Experiments testing for episodic-like memory in animals were moreover done with Dolphins. Mercado et al. (1998, as cited by Zentall et al.) demonstrated that these animals were capable to remember their actions by asking them to perform a certain behavior they had done most recently or a performance they had not recently done. Studies with pigeons as well as with dolphins indicate therefore that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. Since the tests were done with diverse species, it might be that this form of memory represents a general capacity in animals. All the experimental approaches discussed in our presentation involve testing for the what where and when of some unique recent event. As discussed, these experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. This kind of memory is now known as â€Å"episodic like† memory rather than episodic memory because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory defined by Tulving as a memory for what where and when of a unique experience but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Additionally, the series of studies raised doubt about the claim, mental time travel being unique to humans. Therefore the variety of approaches that have developed might be taken as a welcome evidence of a search for convergent data but they also reflect the fact that no one approach to date has captured all aspects of human episodic memory in another species. Knowing now all the definitions and experimental approaches one could come up with t he question â€Å"why is it important to have the ability of episodic memory?† The answer is that there is no selective advantage to reconstruct the past per se, unless it matters for the present or future. It is proposed that episodic reconstruction is just an adaptive design feature of the future planning system such as building a nest. References Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2005. Discrimination of what, when and where: Implications for episodic-like memory in rats. Learning Motivation 36: 177-189. Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2006. Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day. Learning Behaviour 34(2): 124-130. Clayton, N. S., and A. Dickinson. 1998. Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395: 272-274. Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (pp. 249-256) Crystal, J.D. (2010). Episodic-like memory in animals. Behavioural Brain Research, 215 (2), 235–243. Mercado E. et al. (1998). Memory for recent actions in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Repetition of arbitrary behaviors using an abstract rule. Animal Learning Behavior, 26, 210-218. (cited in Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Roberts, W. A., M. C. Feeney, K. MacPherson, M. Petter, N. McMillan, and E. Musolino. 2008. Episodic-like memory in rats: Is it based on when or how long ago?. Science 320: 113-115 Suddendorf T. and Busby J. Mental time travel in animals? Early Cognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane Singer, R.A. and Zentall, T.R. (2007). Pigeons learn to answer the question ‘where did you just peck?’ and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked. Learning Behavior, 35, 184–189. (cited in Crystal, J.D. (2010) Tulving, E. 1972. Episodic and semantic memory. In Organization of memory, ed. Tulving, E., and W. Donaldson. New York: Academic Press. Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Episodic-like memory in pigeons. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 8 (4), 685-690.

Best Evidence :: essays research papers

There are archetypal patterns in life. They reoccur and become familiar to people through all ages and ethnicities. Throughout history, few literary works have captivated audiences by incorporating these patterns. The epic Beowulf is one literary work that effectively incorporates timeless components. The epic poem relates the tale of Beowulf, a warrior who throughout his life overcomes evils. It has strong elements of Anglo-Saxon elements of bravery, strength and of religious tenets. Beowulf enjoys universal appeal primarily because of its elements of characterization, plot and theme that prove timeless. Beowulf’s portrayal of human nature proves eternal. The protagonist Beowulf brashly lists his accomplishments before entering battle: "But the truth is simple: no man swims in the sea as I can, no strength is a match for mine†¦ other monsters crowded around me, continually attacking. I treated them politely, offering the edge of my razor-sharp sword," (265-294) . His boasts are symbolic of his personal insecurity. Beowulf seems scared of defeat and faliure. His boastful remarks are reminders to himself of his invincibility. Because he is insecure, Beowulf is an accurate representation of human nature. The poem also discloses social behaviors through Welthow, who portrays appropriate submissiveness of a wife. Women in society and position always are hot topics for discussion in any country and time period. She is subservient to her husband and " [pours] a portion from the jeweled cup for each, till [she] had carried the mead-cup among [the guests]," (354-372). Jealousy is a accurately portrayed in the poem. is a human attribute that will apply to any time period anywhere. In the incident with Unferth, for example: "angry that anyone in Denmark or anywhere on earth had ever acquired glory and fame greater than his own"(236-238) tries to belittle Beowulf’s claims to bravery, and, by doing so, adds realistic qualitie s to his character. Belief Divine or supernatural notions are also tendencies of human nature. The poem reflects this ageless concern through references to "that Shepherd of Evil" (432) and "[sacrifices] to the old stone gods" (90). These are both conflicting allusions to the two prominent religions of the time. One pertains to Christian ideology; i.e. "The Almighty God" (493), and "the Almighty making the earth" (8), and the other relates to Anglo Saxon religious beliefs; i.e., "the omens were good" (118) and "fate will unwind as it must," (189). The poem alludes to Christianity, a monotheistic religion that rejects ideas of fate.

Misconceptions Among Muslim Essay

This is the biggest misconception about Islam, no doubt resulting from the constant stereotyping and bashing the media gives Islam. When a gunman attacks a mosque in the name of Judaism, a Catholic IRA guerrilla sets off a bomb in an urban area, or Serbian Orthodox militiamen rape and kill innocent Muslim civilians, these acts are not used to stereotype an entire faith. Never are these acts attributed to the religion of the perpetrators. Yet how many times have we heard the words ‘Islamic, Muslim fundamentalist, etc.’ linked with violence. Many people use the name of religions for their own purposes. One should consult the source of Islam and separate what the true religion of Islam says from what is portrayed in the media. Islam literally means ‘submission to Allah’ and is derived from a root word meaning ‘peace’. Islam may seem exotic or even extreme in the modern world. Perhaps this is because religion doesn’t dominate everyday life in the West, whereas Islam is considered a ‘way of life’ for Muslims and they make no division between secular and sacred in their lives. Like Christianity, Islam permits fighting in self-defence, in defence of religion, or on the part of those who have been expelled forcibly from their homes. It lays down strict rules of combat, which include prohibitions against harming civilians and against destroying crops, trees and livestock. Nowhere does Islam enjoin the killing of innocents. The Quran says: {Fight in the cause of Allah against those who fight you, but do not transgress limits. Allah does not love transgressors} (Quran 2:190), {If they seek peace, then seek you peace. And trust in Allah for He is the One that heareth and knoweth all things} (Quran 8:61) War, therefore, is the last resort, and is subject to the rigorous conditions laid down by the sacred law. The term ‘jihad’ literally means ‘struggle’. Muslims believe that there are two kinds of jihad. The other ‘jihad’ is the inner struggle of the soul, which everyone wages against egotistic desires for the sake of attaining inner peace.

Things Fall Apart (Janie essays

Things Fall Apart (Janie essays Janie saw her life like a great tree in leaf with the things suffered, things enjoyed, things done and undone. Dawn and doom was in the branches." Throughout the life of Zora Neale Hurston, she has accomplished all that a woman in her time could achieve. She has been a best selling author, and she has set an inspiration for women of all ages today. From the 1930s to the 1960s, she published seven books, many short stories, magazine articles, and plays and was known as an outstanding folklorist and novelist as well as being the most prolific black woman in America. She lived through a time of poverty and rough times for black people but she didnt see anything wrong with being black. She felt that her blackness was so special that others could benefit just from being around her. Her works were seen as manifestos of womanhood and shared positive aspects of black life. In her most famous story, Their Eyes Where Watching God, she depicts Janie Crawford, a 40+ year old woman who tells her life to her friend Phoebe Watson. In Their Eyes Where Watching God, Janie is trying to find love but she does not know the correct places to loo k for love. Her first two attempts at love, one that was forced and the other that was not equal at the start, but finally third time is a charm as she love. Zora Neale Hurston life serves much purpose in the story and by reading Their Eyes Where Watching God, the reader will not only enjoy the story of a woman life from the other side of the horizon but also some personal information about the author. (Their Eyes Were Watching God, University of Illinois Press, 1937) In my report I will explain why Zora Neale Hurston is an inspiration and serves as a model for Janie and debate on the many similarities and difficulties between Janie Crawford and Zora Neale Hurston in Their Eyes Where Watching God. Before Zora Neale Hurston started to write, she was born on a small farm in Eatonvil...

By the Waters of Babylon essays

By the Waters of Babylon essays Steven Vincent Benet, shows all of the different concepts and literary terms in this story. Some of the concepts and terms he uses are: Sequence, the order events happened in the story to make the ending good; Conflict, amongst John with outside forces; Rites of Passage, John has to be a man and leave fast. Theme, the changes and ways characters look at thing, which John and his father thought gods were east but they were really people and they were all dead. In order to show that Johns a man he travels east where it is forbidden. This is where people say the gods are. He first started going on trips with his dad, who is a priest, and who is not afraid of anything. He asks his dad if he can leave, and he starts traveling east. He walks back west to where he lives, and talks to his father. He tells him that the Gods were really people and they all were dead. He also told his father, that he did not know why they were all dead. His dad says to tell the town what his experience, but slowly enough so they can understand. On his way east, John encounters many Barriers that make it hard for him to travel. First, he meats a panther that is eating a fawn and the panther sees him and charges John, so, John shoots him in the eye. Second, he has to build a raft, to cross the Great River. He just hopes he will not be taken out into the land of the legends. Third, he woke up and saw a wolf lying there, and more wolves came and tried to kill him, but he ran into a house and shut the door. After all, of John's obstacles he finally gets to the forbidden land, and the land of the gods, New York. Everyone is dead, because of the destructive technology, which John does not know about. He finally realizes that the gods are actually human beings just like him. In conclusion, John traveled east to find out that the gods were actually humans and they were all dead. But in order to get there he had to be a man and ...

Outline the key criticisms against western feminist theory by 'third Essay

Outline the key criticisms against western feminist theory by 'third world' feminism, drawing on the work of at least TWO - Essay Example Redefining feminism by location and with the third world approach can be analyzed with a variety of theorists, all which redefine the main concept of feminism in society. 2.0 Definition of Third World Feminism The concept of third world feminism has been identified by the location which one is in and the problems which are in society. The main definition is based on social change which is needed in different regions of the world. For instance, in the U.S., the approach to feminism is based on social, historical and political changes, specifically because of the inequalities which women faced in society from the level of consciousness toward gender inequalities and the lack of social justice in society. However, in places that are underdeveloped, such as regions throughout Africa and Asia, third world feminism is redefined. Rather than a social injustice and sense of inequality, feminism is based on the politics and priorities that are within society as well as how these each link to the opportunities which women have. The lack of resources which are in third world countries change the approach to feminism, specifically because the social injustices differ with the lack of opportunities and changes which occur among those that are in the culture. The main difference is based on the post modern regions and places which are underdeveloped (Henderson, Waterstone, 2008: pg. 338). 2.1 Culture and Third World Feminism The concept of third world feminism is further defined by the ideologies of culture and the association which this has with developed equality between genders in specific regions. This relates to the overall definition of feminism because culture becomes a main component in the identity of feminism and how the capacity for women to be equal exists. In many cultures in third world countries, there is a different component of identity, specifically based on social and religious regulations. These are often given because of the social viewpoint of safety of women as well as the place which women should have in relation to men. The cultural component that is based in the regions leads to many of the feminist beliefs which occur in a post modern country to not be pertinent for those that are in a third world country. With the persistence of these traditions, there is the inability to change the dilemmas which are based on gender equality within the third world countries (Lewin, 2006: pg. 153). 2.2 Society and Third World Feminism Religious and cultural issues with gender equality further with the lack of resources which is a part of society and which not only cause inequality between men and women, but also persist with the needs of men that are in society. Many third world countries are not to the point of focusing on gender equality because of the social viewpoints which are pertinent in society and which create alterations in what is occurring in the different regions. Slums, poverty, lack of education to all and inability to have av ailable employment are some of the main continuous problems that are within the culture. However, this is not associated with the main components of women not having the opportunity to work. Instead, this is a social problem that is based on the lack of opportunity and resources, as well as the inability to provide opportunities to those that are in socie

The Communication Challenge In Change Management Essay

The Communication Challenge In Change Management - Essay Example The project starts off with the concepts and theories of change management to give us a handle on what the process is all about. We acknowledge that enough has been written about the subject, but a thorough discussion of its theoretical roots is necessary for us to pin down the object of our own research, which is expected to be uncovered from the results of the survey and research based on sub-questions 1 and 2. These sub-questions are as interesting and necessary as the primary question because they will allow us a look-see on how the change management theories are translated into actual practice, and how communication plays a role in that process. We then attempt to justify this information through a case study of companies that practice change management. Relations to Existing Literature The basic idea of change management is to bring order to a disorderly situation. It is also described as the process of locating and identifying problems for the purpose of solving them. Once the problem is identified, change is then carried out either by transformation, reduction or application. By transformation, the objective is to change the situation from a "problem state"... From the research, it can be comprehended that the basic idea of change management is to bring order to a disorderly situation. It is also described as the process of locating and identifying problems for the purpose of solving them. Once the problem is identified, change is then carried out either by transformation, reduction or application. By transformation, the objective is to change the situation from a â€Å"problem state† to a â€Å"solved state.† Through reduction, change management is aimed at lessening the magnitude of the problem to at least blunt its effects on the organization. As for application, management deals with the problem by calling in specialists to transform, reduce or eliminate said problem. For efficient management of the changes that could influence the smo oth operation and viability of the business, there are four basic change management strategies set forth in the literature, which are led by the â€Å"empirical-rational† strategy. In this particular strategy, Lewin, K. says the changes are communicated to the employees by setting up reward and incentive systems based on the notion that people, being rational beings, respond positively to a give-and-take proposition. The chief concern of the proposed dissertation is to sketch change management as it is applied and communicated in different industries, of which precious little is mentioned in the existing literature. For the most part, the literature is only concerned with the theories and concepts of change management.